Drug And The Drug Court System Essay - 1788 Words

â€Å"A drug court is a special court given responsibility to handle cases involving substance-abusing offenders through comprehensive supervision, drug testing, treatment services and immediate sanctions and incentives† (â€Å"what are drug courts?†). â€Å"These offenders have alcohol, drug addiction, and depending problems. Drug courts keep individuals in treatment long enough for it to work, while supervising them closely† (â€Å"what are drug courts?†). â€Å"In 1989, the first drug court was built in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The Miami-Dade drug court sparked a national revolution that has forever changed our justice system† (â€Å"what are drug courts?†). â€Å"Circuit court Judge Herbert M. Klein had become troubled by the negative effects of drug offenses on Dade County. He became determined to address the problem caused by widespread drug use. This first drug court became a model program for the nation† (â€Å"Drug Courtsà ¢â‚¬ , 2005). The main purpose of the drug court system is mainly to utilize the programs set in place to help serve the community better, and to deal with drug offenders in the local community. Each offender, whether they are a drug user or another offense, have drug courts that specifically tailor to the needs and certain interventions needed. Drug courts aim to monitor drug addicted criminal offenders and provide them treatment. It also helps these individuals from obtaining any more drugs, committing crimes due to drug use, helps them to complete their education, and helps them toShow MoreRelatedDrug Courts And The Criminal Justice System1506 Words   |  7 PagesDrug courts are considered to be one of the most successful innovations to be implemented in the criminal justice system. It was first implemented during the height of the drug war hysteria and the long epidemic of the skyrocketing rates of incarceration. According to the Bureau of Justice Assistance (2010), drug co urts are a â€Å"specially designed court docket, whose purpose is to achieve a reduction in recidivism and substance abuse among nonviolent substance abusing offenders and to increase theRead MoreCriminal Behavior And The Justice System Essay1361 Words   |  6 Pagesthe justice system has attempted to narrow down the causes of criminal behavior. The justice system has also put into place specialty courts that are designed to better address these particular causes of criminal behavior. The goal of these courts is to better address the individual’s reason that they engaged in criminal behavior in hopes that with the additional support, in the future the individual will become a productive member of society. What are specialty Courts? Specialty courts are becomingRead MoreIs Drug Treatment a Viable Alternative to Prison Time? Essay1113 Words   |  5 Pagesjustice system and taxpayers more money to transfer inmates to other facilities and in lawsuits brought by inmates against the prisons. With the prisons and county jails facing major overcrowding issues and drug treatment programs being a viable alternative to prison time, more states need to be implementing drug / treatment programs. Treatment / Drug Courts are specialized courts to help stop drug, alcohol, and related criminal activity (U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration,2011). These courts closelyRead MorePros And Cons Of Juvenile Drug Courts1589 Words   |  7 Pages Drug Courts Haley Klimesh Community-Based Corrections September 29, 2017 Drug Courts Drug courts are problem solving courts that take a public health approach using a specialized model in which the judiciary, prosecution, defense bar, probation, law enforcement, mental health, social service, and treatment communities work together to help addicted offenders into long-term recovery. Drug courts began in 1989 in Florida, because it was assumed that people that had first timeRead MoreDifferences Between The Success Rate Of Drug Courts974 Words   |  4 Pagesrate of drug courts? A. History of Drug Courts 1. Brief history of drug courts 2. Where was the first drug court? 3. Explain drug court model 4. Who is eligible for drug court treatment? 5. What happens after successful completion of drug courts 6. Penalties for drug court failure. B. Drug Addictions 1. Are there gender differences in drug addiction? 2. What causes female drug addiction/dependency? 3. What causes male drug addiction/dependency? C. Drug Court Recidivism Rates 1. Female drug offender’sRead MoreThe Drug Of Drug Addiction Essay1270 Words   |  6 Pagesolder brother struggle with drug addiction has taught me more in my life than anything else. He was a smart kid with a good head on his shoulders.   As he grew older he made some unwise choices with regard to substance abuse that quickly turned into a full blown addiction lasting over five years and landed him in and out of four different rehabs.   He was striving to get clean, but every time he took one step forward he fell three steps back.   Taylor entered Drug Court, after finding himself in a lotRead MoreA Complete Package Of Prevention And Treatment Services1279 Words   |  6 Pagesassociated with drug abuse in southern and eastern Kentucky, which largely included Rogers’ Fifth Congressional District. (Operation UNITE, 2016) UNITE also has several activities throughout the year where the community can be involved, such as a Say no to Drugs Walk a Thon and a Hallowe en Program. Kentucky Drug Court is administered through the Administrative Office of the Courts in Frankfort, which oversees 55 adult programs that serve 115 counties. Drug Court’s mission is to provide court-supervisedRead MoreHistory And Impact Of Drug Treatment Courts1471 Words   |  6 PagesThe History and Impact of Drug Treatment Courts Tincen Vithayathil University of Baltimore The History and Impact of Drug Courts Between 1990 and 1999, individuals who were convicted of a drug crime rose past 100,000, which accounted for 20 percent of our nation’s increased prison population (Lurigio, 2008). Between 1995 and 2003, the number of drug-related offenders constituted the largest increase of criminals in our nation’s prison population (Lurigio, 2008). In 2004, approximatelyRead MoreProblem-Solving Courts are Helping to Reform the Justice System526 Words   |  3 Pages I believe that one of the best reforms to our justice system is the growing number of Problem-Solving Courts. Problem-Solving Courts are specialized courts that focus on specific problems in society, such as drug abuse, prostitution, mental-health, domestic violence, etc (Courts). I have chosen drug courts more specifically to research. According to drugpolicy.org, in 2012 1.55 million people were arrested for non-violent drug charges (Drug Policy Alliance). This is an astounding amount of peopleRead MoreThe Court Syst em Is Not Perfect1697 Words   |  7 PagesOur US court system is not perfect, it is like a mirror that has some scratches on the surface. With some hard work and the right tools, the mirror can be fixed. Jennifer Murphy and Adam Benforado talk about how our court system is flawed. Murphy talks about drug courts and how they are affecting our court system. Benforado talks about the individuals involved in the courtroom and how their mistakes flaw the court system. Though both Jennifer Murphy and Adam Benforado do talk about ways to fix the

Nostalgia in “Where I Come from” Free Essays

â€Å"Where I Come From† is a poem in which Elizabeth Brewster expresses her nostalgic emotions and yearning for the tranquility and yearning for the nature of her hometown. The vivid imagery, which stimulates the readers’ senses plays an important role in intensifying the vehemence of her emotions. Brewster also expresses her nostalgia in a way that makes readers empathic with her strong yearning. We will write a custom essay sample on Nostalgia in â€Å"Where I Come from† or any similar topic only for you Order Now The lack of rhyming scheme in this piece conveys a sense of fickleness and uniqueness. People are made of places,† she says, which I believe specifically meaner that people re made of places that they belong to, that people do not â€Å"carry with them hints of† manmade cities and skyscrapers because they do not belong there, but they belong in the â€Å"Jungles and mountains† as mankind itself is a piece of nature. Furthermore, Brewster uses â€Å"people† as a metaphor for herself, thus being the reason for her intense yearning. â€Å"Smell of smog† in the fourth line radiates a strong imagery of the blurry matter, blinding people from the pathway of their goals. Therefore, the phrase represents Brewster melancholy and strong sense of uncertainty. Her description of the scent f spring as â€Å"the almost-not-smell of tulips† conveys a sense of disappointment as not even a single whole thing of nature remains in the synthetic world of the modern age. Brewster then mentions the scent of museums, the scent of old, once-functional items that are kept only for the sake of history. This serves as a medium to further convey her nostalgia. She then mentions the scent of â€Å"work, glue factories†, â€Å"chromium-plated offices†, and â€Å"subways†. Her choice of mentioning only the dullest and most mundane scents of the contemporary realm depicts her dissatisfaction tit it, in comparison to what her old settlement had to offer. â€Å"Burned-out†, â€Å"old†, and â€Å"battered†, she describes her hometown, yet she still yearns for it. From this, it is concluded that it is not the quality of the items she seeks, but the tranquility and beauty. Brewster included the very fragrant and soothing scent of â€Å"pine woods† and â€Å"blueberry†, further strengthening the former point. â€Å"With yards where hens and chickens circle about,† she says. The image of the Jaunty animals provides an aura of mirthful glee, which is precisely what she experiences while being in the less hectic environment. She also stated that the â€Å"hens and chickens† are â€Å"clucking aimlessly†, depicting a sense of insouciance. Therefore, her wistfulness is caused by her longing for the blithe and airy nature of her hometown. Spring and winter are the mind’s chief seasons†; in this line, Brewster has started to tolerate with the circumstance she is place in in that present and that the benefit in simply yearning is nonexistent. â€Å"Ice and the breaking of ice† symbolisms her adamantly of belonging in a place of nature, as it starts to fade, thus exposing herself Brewster then allows the doo r to her memories to â€Å"blow open† and let the â€Å"frosty mind† that is her haunting memories to be blown and fade away. Her description of her memories as â€Å"frosty† depicts her acknowledgement and awareness of how her nostalgia has turned her into an aloof person whose gaze illustrates none but melancholy. In conclusion, this poem is the tale of Elizabeth Brewster momentary misery and despair due to her nostalgia, which she overcomes as she realizes that the past is not all there is, which is the fickle element of the poem. Therefore, this poem is not a mere chronicle, but Brewster message of counsel too. How to cite Nostalgia in â€Å"Where I Come from†, Papers

The Existence of God Theories of Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm, and Wil Essay Example For Students

The Existence of God: Theories of Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm, and Wil Essay liam PaleyThe Existence of God: Theories of Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm, and William PaleyThe three readings that form the basis of this essay all deal with the existenceof a God, something that which nothing greater can be conceived and cannot beconceived not to exist. The three readings include: Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm,and William Paley. First let us start with Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican Monk (1225-1274) whois considered by many to be the greatest theologian in Western religion. Aquanis writes of two opposite theories with reasons for the non-existence of God and then for the existence of God. He starts off with hisviews for the non-existence of God relating this through two objections. In thefirst of the two he defines God as infinite goodness and goes on the say thatif God truly existed, there would be no evil. Since evil does exist in theworld, there must therefore be no God. I agree with this reasoning, for how could God, a being of infinitegoodness create and care for a world of non-perfection and corruption. I havealways questioned, as I am sure we all have, how, if there is a God, he couldallow such terrible things to occur as they do in todays world: The starving inThird World Countries, the destructiveness of war, and especially the anguish oflosing a loved one. In the Bible, a book meant to be the word of God, condemns such thingsas murder, adultery and theft. I find it hard to believe that an all-powerful,all-knowing, infinitely-good being that created this world and everything init would allow any of these things to occur. He would not only condemn them inan ancient book, but abolish them altogether along with any other things evil. If God is supposed to be the heavenly father wouldnt he want and impose ontohis children his goodness and weed out all evil?Aquinas also shows this non-existence through Objective 2 where hewrites how it is expecting too much for something that can be accounted for be afew principles has been produced by many. There are other principles that canaccount for everything we see in our world supposing God did not exist. Allthings can be reduced to one principle, that of nature and therefore there is noneed to suppose Gods existence. Once more I agree with his rationale of this subject, for it is logicalto believe in a simple, visible, measurable concept such as the principle ofnature, instead of something so complex it is near in-conceivable, and not ableto be seen or measured. Nature could have accounted for the gradual developmentof mankind and scientific theories have given us explanations for the existenceof nature and proof of this gradual development. Our planets creation hasbeen explained as a result of The Big Bang and mans development from asingle-cellular organism to the multi-cellular, intelligent man of today byevolution. I agree with both of Thomas Aquinas Objectives and it is mainlybecause of these two arguments that I, myself do not believe in the existence ofGod, something that which nothing greater can be conceived and cannot beconceived not to exist. Aquinas, in the next section of his writings takes the opposite side andgives five arguments for the existence of God. First: The Argument From ChangeIn his first argument Aquinas attempts to prove through theories ofmotion, the existence of God. He writes that since motion exists in the world,and motion is caused by something else, then in order for there to be any motion(life) now, there must have been an original thing, God to cause this motion. For it is impossible for something with potentiality for motion, to advanceitself to actuality of motion. I agree with this theory because I have studied Physics and have read ofthe teachings of Sir Isaac Newton, but as Science explains, there are perfectlylogical explanations as to the formulation of todays motion, Big Bang Gasses,and the evolution of man. In agreeing with this theory I, in no way havecontradicted myself, for I believe there always has been motion of some kind itis through millions upon millions of years occurrences, building up and evolvingthat the current conditions (life) has occurred. Demand for Medical Care EssayHe (St. Anselm) goes on to write later of the conceivement of a beingbetter than God, and the absurdity of this. For if this was to occur theCreature would rise above the Creator. He goes on to explain how conceiving anobject and understanding it are totally different. These two things, conceivingand understanding lay the basis for most of the writing and basically it seemsthat he is talking more about faith than actuality. He seems to restrict mostof his ideas to the minds and hearts of men and leave out the real aspect inquestion: Is there any way of truly proving that God exists? I think not andthrough St. Anselms writings he has done nothing to convince me of otherwise. William Paley: The Watch and the WatchmakerWilliam Paley (1743-1805) was a leading evangelical apologist. Thiswriting comes from the first chapter of his most important work, Natural Theory,or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity Collected from theAppearances of Nature (1802). Paley described a scene in which a person finds a stone and assumes thatit has always been there, but when that same person finds a watch andautomatically assumes differently the a question arises: Is finding a watch anydifferent than finding a stone? And ultimately, does a God exist and if not howare we, and everything around us, here? Paley goes on to describe the innerworkings of the watch comparing them to everyday life and the workings of nature. He uses the fact that one in a million men know how the inner workings ofcertain parts of a watch work and still no doubt arises in our minds as to theexistence of its maker. He does this to show that we shouldnt doubt theexistence of God just because we dont know how he works. Also how if we founda watch and it didnt work perfectly we should not expect flawlessness, for itis not necessary for a machine to be perfect for us to see the design it wasmade. Thus explaining evil in the world and the problems in todays societyeven though God exists. He writes how absurd it is to assume that the watch isa result of the common workings of metallic nature and relates this toSciences explanation of the evolution of man in an attempt of discrediting it. In general he compares the watch and how we know it was made to the world welive in and more specifically to us, mankind. Paley has many good points and his use of the watch as a metaphor forlife in his writing is the work of genius. In contrast though, I believe hisarguments to be flawed in that we know there is only one way to construct awatch (a person, a watchmaker, builds it) and when it comes to the question ofthe world we live in and our life itself, there is much uncertainty. We havebeen told by Scientists that there are perfectly good explanations as to theexistence of the universe and that of man. This is the same as in the argumentsof Thomas Aquinas that it is much easier to believe in a visible, measurableconcept such as the principle of nature, instead of something so complex it isnear in-conceivable, and not able to be seen or measured, like the existence ofGod. Although I enjoyed reading Paley and am amazed at the intricate nature ofhis work I am still a skeptic when it comes to the existence of God and nothingshort of first hand experience will change that. In conclusion, I have spent the most time writing on Thomas Aquinas forthe fact that I believe him to be the most thorough and discerning of the three. He argues both sides and although his arguments for the existence of God donothing to convince myself, he does raise some valid points with the logic ofhis arguments being brilliant. He should be recognized as an extraordinaryreligious scholar (as he is) who examines both sides of an argument on a subjectthat at the time (early 1200s) it was forbidden to even question (the existenceof God). I have enjoyed these readings and consider myself more well-versed onthe subject because of them.

The Homeless What Has Been Done To Decrease The Problem Essay Example For Students

The Homeless: What Has Been Done To Decrease The Problem? Essay One of the largest growing concerns in Toronto is the constantlyincreasing number of citizens who are finding themselves living on thestreets. With the decrease in the number of available jobs, the populationof homeless people has literally boomed. My questions are not as simple toanswer as they may appear. Why is a large portion of our community forcedto live on the streets? What has be done to decrease the problem? Theseare the questions I will confront in my essay. With the economical wealth attributed to the name Canada, one wouldhave to wonder why there is a homeless situation at all. This problem isespecially evident in Canadas wealthiest city, Toronto. When it comes tothe affairs of the people, it is the government who should intervene. WhenI look at what the government has done with regard to the homeless problem,I have to doubt that everything is being done to eradicate it. The UnitedNations implemented a universal declaration of human rights. Article 25Section 1 of this declaration states: Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the healthand well being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing,housing, and medical care and necessary social services, and to the rightto security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. We will write a custom essay on The Homeless: What Has Been Done To Decrease The Problem? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now This is a step in the right direction. However, this is not enough. These rights are subject to the discretion of the government of the countrywho decides to obey these universal rights. How much is adequate? The government, both at the federal and municipal levels, is currentlyworking on new spending cuts. These cuts also include spending on welfare,unemployment and social services that are geared towards helping thehomeless. Spending cuts can be seen as a necessity to maintain the countryeconomically, but the reason for having a government in the first place isto take care of the people. How can this be done when money is being takenaway from those services that are necessary to uphold this obligation?Simply put, it cannot. Those obligations are served by nonprofitorganizations who depend on government grants to maintain a standard ofcare for those who need the services. The blame cannot be placed only on the government. Such a system ofassistance depends on its beneficiaries to be honest and have someintegrity. Many recipients of these services attempt to cheat thesystem. With no will to search for work many of these recipients remainat home and reap the benefits of their weekly cheques. This causes thegovernment to create other services to control the amounts of money beingdistributed to those people. This process is costly and would beunnecessary if all of the recipients decided to take an honest approach tothis service. What can the government do to decrease the homeless population?Although there is no quick and easy answer to solve this difficult problem,Toronto has the means to attempt economical ways to research and come upwith ideas to solve it. Here in Ontario we have many excellentuniversities and colleges with equally excellent students who are takingcourses in the political sciences. If the government were to cooperatewith these universities and colleges and have them work in conjunction withthe current research groups, then the answer to decrease the homelesspopulation would be effectively answered. The government would encounterlittle expense and at the same time give the students a chance to implementwhat they are learning into real life situations. Everyone benefits fromthis idea and there are no losers. .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .postImageUrl , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:hover , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:visited , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:active { border:0!important; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:active , .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4 .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u51e2285e3c2fee61778d3cb3bd6b4be4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: ROSA pARKS Essay In conclusion I think that our homeless problem could eventually berooted out entirely if everyone were to take part in the care of theirfellow neighbour. If we were to stop being self-centered and startthinking about the other person who has less than us, I am sure that wewould benefit from it. It isnt all that hard. A few advertisements onthe television and radio, a little push from our societys leaders and wewould be off on the right track. That worked for the recycling program. Now we should try employing this idea for even better reasons. I doubt thatI will be around to see this idea in use all around the world, but I dohope that I can one day see it used here in Toronto. To assist all thehomeless here in Toronto would be a very nice thing to see. The best partof it all would be to know that we, as a society, would be able to worktogether despite all the barriers created by racism and our naive naturewhen it comes to other heritages.

How to Stay Motivated in the Final Weeks of School

How to Stay Motivated in the Final Weeks of School If college were easy, more people would be attending- and graduating. And while college can be challenging, there are definitely times when things are more difficult than usual. The end of the semester, for example- and especially the end of the spring semester- can sometimes feel harder to get through than the rest of the year combined. Youre low on energy, time, and resources, and its more challenging than usual to recharge yourself. So just how can you stay motivated at the end of the semester? Try Changing Your Routine How long has it been since you mixed up your schedule? As in...really mixed it up? You might be in a bit of a funk because youre just going through the motions: go to bed late, wake up tired, go to class, procrastinate. If you need to snap yourself out of it, try reworking your routine, if even just for a day or two. Go to bed early. Get enough sleep. Eat a healthy breakfast. Eat a healthy lunch. Do your homework in the morning so you can hang out, without guilt, all afternoon and evening. Go off campus to study. Mix things up so that your brain can engage and recharge in a new context. Add Some Exercise When youre low on energy, adding exercise to your routine sounds positively dreadful. Making the time for physical activity, however, can help relieve your stress, increase your energy, and clear things up mentally. Go for a nice long run outside, if you can, or join an exercise class that youve never been to. Play a pick-up game with friends or just zone out on the rowing machine. No matter what you do, promise yourself youll do it for at least 30 minutes. Chance are youll be amazed at how much better you feel. Schedule in Some Downtime Even if you know youll be hanging out with people throughout the week, it can be hard to really let yourself relax if youre worried about everything else you have to do. Consequently, make an official night out, dinner out, coffee date, or something similar with friends. Put it on your calendar. And then let yourself really relax and rejuvenate while youre out. Get off Campus and Forget Youre a Student for a Little While Everything you do probably revolve around your college life- which, while understandable, can also be wearisome. Leave your backpack behind and head to a museum, a musical performance, or even a community event. Forget that youre a student and just let yourself enjoy the moment. Your college responsibilities will wait for you. Remind Yourself of Your Long-term Goals Studying can be exhausting when you think of all you have to read and learn and memorize and write within the last few weeks of the term. However, thinking about your long-term goals- both professionally and personally- can be incredibly motivating. Visualize or even write down what you want your life to be like in 5, 10, and even 20 years. And then use those goals to help you plow through your to-do list. Make Attainable Short-term Goals While looking at your long-term goals can be motivating, focusing on your short-term goals can also be incredibly helpful. Make simple, very-short-term (if not downright immediate) goals that you can reach with a little extra effort. What is the one big thing youd like to get done by the end of the day today? By the end of the day tomorrow? By the end of the week? You dont have to list everything; just list one or two tangible things that you can aim for and reasonably expect to accomplish. Spend an afternoon imagining the details of your life after college. Focus on as many details as possible. Where will you live? What will your house or apartment look like? How will it be decorated? What kinds of things will you have hanging on the walls? What kind of dishes will you have? What kinds of people will you have over? What will your work life be like? What will you wear? What will you eat for lunch? How will you commute? What kinds of situations will make you laugh and feel joyful? Who will be part of your social circle? What will you do to have fun and relax? Spend a good hour or two imagining the details of what your life will be like. And then refocus and recharge yourself so you can finish your semester and make progress toward creating that life. Do something creative. Sometimes, the demands of college mean you end up spending your entire day doing things you have to do. When was the last time you did something you want to do? Allocate an hour or two to do something creative not for a grade, not for an assignment, but because you simply need to let your brain do something else. Do something new and silly. Are you tired of having all of the items on your to-do list be serious and productive? Add something that adds some brevity and good, old-fashioned silliness. Take a cooking class, go fly a kite, read a trashy magazine, finger paint, get in a water gun fight with friends, or run through some sprinklers. It doesnt matter what you do as long as you let yourself be goofy and enjoy it for what it is: ridiculous. Find a new place to study. Even if youre lacking motivation, you still have certain things to do like studying. If you cant change your to-do list, change where you get things done. Find a new place to study on campus so that you at least feel like youre mixing things up instead of repeating the same routine over and over and over again. Set up a reward system for yourself. It doesnt have to be fancy or expensive to be motivating. Pick two things on your to-do list and set an easy reward, like that candy bar in the vending machine youre always daydreaming about. When you finish those two tasks, treat yourself! Similarly, add in other short-term rewards, like a snack, nice cup of coffee, power nap, or other small treasure. Drop something from your to-do list and dont feel bad about it. Do you have a ton to do? Are you tired? Do you just not have the energy to get everything completed? Then instead of focusing on how to motivate yourself to do the impossible, take a hard look at your to-do list. Pick one or two things that are stressing you out and drop them without feeling guilty. If things are stressful and your resources are low, then its time to prioritize. What seemed important a month ago may no longer make the cut, so cross off what you can and focus on what you really need to focus on. You just might surprise yourself with how your energy levels replenish and your stress levels decrease.

The History of Ostrich Domestication

The History of Ostrich Domestication Ostriches (Struthio camelus) are the largest bird alive today, with adults weighing between 200–300 pounds (90-135 kilograms). Adult males attain a height of up to 7.8 feet (2.4 meters) tall; females are slightly smaller. Their immense body size and small wings make them incapable of flying. Ostriches have a remarkable tolerance to heat, withstanding temperatures up to 56 degrees C (132 degrees F) without much stress. Ostriches have been domesticated for only about 150 years, and are truly only partly domesticated, or, rather, are only domesticated for a short period of their lives. Key Takeaways: Ostrich Domestication Ostriches were domesticated (and only partly) in South Africa in the mid-19th century.  South African farmers and their British colonial overlords were responding to an enormous demand for fluffy ostrich feathers used in Victorian-era fashions.Although they are adorable as chicks, ostriches are not good pets, because they quickly grow into bad-tempered giants with sharp claws.   Ostriches as Pets? Keeping ostriches in zoos as exotic pets was practiced in Bronze Age Mesopotamia at least as early as the 18th century BCE. Assyrian annals mention ostrich hunts, and some royal kings and queens kept them in zoos and harvested them for eggs and feathers. Although some modern day people do attempt to keep ostriches as pets, no matter how gently you raise them, within a year, the cute fluffy juvenile ball grows to a 200-pound behemoth with sharp claws and the temperament to use them.​ Far more common and successful is ostrich farming, producing red meat similar to beef or venison, and leather goods from the hides. The ostrich market is variable, and as of the 2012 agricultural census, there are just a few hundred ostrich farms in the U.S. Ostrich Life Cycle There are a handful of recognized modern sub-species of ostrich, including four in Africa, one in Asia (Struthio camelus syriacus, which has been extinct since the 1960s) and one in Arabia (Struthio asiaticus Brodkorb). Wild species are known to have been present in North Africa and Central Asia, although today they are restricted to sub-Saharan Africa. South American ratite species are only distantly related, including Rhea americana and Rhea pennata. Wild ostriches are grass eaters, usually concentrating on a handful of annual grasses and forbs that yield essential protein, fiber, and calcium. When they dont have a choice, they will eat leaves, flowers, and fruits of non-grassy plants. Ostriches mature at between four and five years of age and have a lifespan in the wild of up to 40 years. They are known to travel in the Namib desert between 5 to 12 miles (8–20 kilometers) per day, with an average home range of about 50 mi (80 km). They can run up to 44 mi (70 km) per hour when necessary, with a single stride of up to 26 ft (8 m). It has been suggested that Upper Paleolithic Asian ostriches migrated seasonally, as an adaptation to climate change. Ancient Appearance: Ostrich as Megafauna Ostriches are of course an ancient prehistoric bird, but they show up in the human record as ostrich eggshell (often abbreviated OES) fragments and beads from archaeological sites beginning about 60,000 years ago. Ostriches, along with mammoth, were among the last Asian megafaunal species (defined as animals which weigh more than 100 kg) to become extinct. Radiocarbon dates on archaeological sites associated with OES begin near the end of the Pleistocene, late in Marine Isotope Stage 3 (ca. 60,000–25,000 years ago). Central Asian ostriches went extinct during the Holocene (what archaeologists call the last 12,000 years or so). The east Asian ostrich Struthio anderssoni, native to the Gobi Desert, was among the megafaunal species that went extinct during the Holocene: they survived the Last Glacial Maximum only to apparently be done in by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. That increase also increased the number of grasses, but it negatively impacted the forage availability in the Gobi. In addition, it is possible that human over-use during the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene might have occurred, as mobile hunter-gatherers moved into the region. Human Use and Domestication Beginning in the late Pleistocene, ostriches were hunted for their meat, their feathers, and their eggs. Ostrich shell eggs were likely hunted for the protein in their yolks but were also very useful as light, strong containers for water. Ostrich eggs measure up to 6 inches (16 centimeters) long and can carry up to one quart (about one liter ) of fluid. Ostriches were first kept in captivity during the Bronze Age, in a tamed and semi-domesticated state, in gardens of Babylon, Nineveh, and Egypt, as well as later in Greece and Rome. Tutankhamuns tomb included images of hunting the birds with a bow and arrow, as well as a very fancy ivory ostrich feather fan. There is documented evidence of ostrich riding since the first millennium BCE at the Sumerian site of Kish. European Trade and Domestication The full domestication of the ostrich was not attempted until the mid-19th century when South African farmers established farms solely for harvesting the plumage. At the time, and indeed for several centuries before that and since, ostrich feathers were in high demand by fashionistas from Henry VIII to Mae West. Feathers can be harvested from the ostrich every six to eight months without ill effects. During the first decade of the 20th century, ostrich feathers used in the fashion industry had driven the value per pound to that nearly equal to that of diamonds. Most of the feathers came from Little Karoo, in the Western Cape region of southern Africa. That was because, in the 1860s, the British colonial government had actively facilitated export-oriented ostrich raising. The Darker Side of Ostrich Farming According to historian Sarah Abrevaya Stein, in 1911 the Trans-Saharan Ostrich Expedition took place. That involved a British-government sponsored corporate espionage group who snuck into French Sudan (chased by American and French corporate spies) to steal 150 Barbary ostriches, famed for their double fluff plumes, and brought them back to Cape Town to be inbred with the stock there. By the end of World War II, though, the market for feathers crashed- by 1944, the only market for the fanciest of plumes was on cheap plastic Kewpie dolls. The industry managed to survive by broadening the market to meat and hides. Historian Aomar Boum and Michael Bonine have argued that the European capitalist passion for ostrich plumes decimated both wild animal stocks and African livelihoods based on wild ostriches. Sources Al-Talhi, Dhaifallah. Almulihiah: A Rock Art Site in the Hail Region, Saudi Arabia. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 23.1 (2012): 92–98. Print.Bonato, Maud, et al. Extensive Human Presence at an Early Age of Ostriches Improves the Docility of Birds at a Later Stage of Life. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 148.3–4 (2013): 232–39. Print.Boum, Aomar, and Michael Bonine. The Elegant Plume: Ostrich Feathers, African Commercial Networks, and European Capitalism. The Journal of North African Studies 20.1 (2015): 5–26. Print.Brysbaert, Ann. ‘The Chicken or the Egg?’ Interregional Contacts Viewed through a Technological Lens at Late Bronze Age Tiryns, Greece. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 32.3 (2013): 233–56. Print.dErrico, Francesco, et al. Early Evidence of San Material Culture Represented by Organic Artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109.33 (2012): 13214–19. Print.Gegner, Lance E. Ratite Production: Ostrich, Emu and Rhea. Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas: National Center for Appropriate Technology, 2001. 1–8. Print. Janz, Lisa, Robert G. Elston, and George S. Burr. Dating North Asian Surface Assemblages with Ostrich Eggshell: Implications for Palaeoecology and Extirpation. Journal of Archaeological Science 36.9 (2009): 1982–89. Print.Kurochkin, Evgeny N., et al. The Timing of Ostrich Existence in Central Asia: AMS 14c Age of Eggshells from Mongolia and Southern Siberia (a Pilot Study). Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 268.7–8 (2010): 1091–93. Print.Renault, Marion. Decades after It Crashed, Ostrich Industry Poised to Take Off as Demand Grows. Chicago Tribune September 25. 2016. Print.Shanawany, M. M. Recent Developments in Ostrich Farming. World Animal Review 83.2 (1995). Print.Stein, Sarah Abrevaya. Plumes: Ostrich Feathers, Jews, and a Lost World of Global Commerce. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. Print.

Exploring parents views on their roles in their childrens creativity Dissertation

Exploring parents views on their roles in their childrens creativity development - Dissertation Example In today’s world,creativity is a quality that is becoming of great demand.In response to this, the NACCCE has advocated the incorporation of creativity in the curriculum of schools,knowing its significance in children’s growth and development and its value in helping them develop the necessary skills for their future. NACCCE claims that when children are exposed to environments where teachers’ creative abilities are engaged, these children are likely to develop creative abilities themselves (Jeffrey & Craft, 2001). In view of this, provision of environments or opportunities for creativity development also extends to the home setting. This paper intends to explore parental views on their children’s creativity development in both school and home settings. Literature Review Malaguzzi (1998), prominent educator and founder of the Reggio Emilia Approach in education, most appropriately expressed: Creativity seems to emerge from multiple experiences, coupled wit h a well-supported development of personal resources, including a sense of freedom to venture beyond the known. Creativity seems to express itself though cognitive, affective and imaginative processes (p. 76). Some other accepted definitions of Creativity are as follows: the ability to see things in new ways; boundary breaking and going beyond the information given; thinking unconventionally; making something unique or original; and combining unrelated things into something new (Schirrmacher, 1988). Torrance (1965), a proponent in creativity research, defines creativity as the â€Å"process of sensing problems or gaps in information, forming ideas or hypotheses and communicating the results.† Schirrmacher (1988) explains that creativity may be explained in terms of product, process, skill set of personality traits or set of environmental conditions. As a product, it is viewed as a new invention, creation or thought, like the works of creative geniuses such as Mozart, Plato, G alileo, Newton and Einstein, among others. In this explanation, creativity seems to be elitist difficult to achieve for ordinary people (Schirrmacher, 1988). As a process, creativity is more inclusive, as coming up with a product is not a requirement and everyone can do creative processing that includes â€Å"thinking, speaking, playing, writing, dancing, singing, playing a musical instrument, experimenting with objects, transforming materials and manipulating ideas and objects.† (Schirrmacher, 1988). Engaging in the creative process brings a feeling of fulfillment to the person even if the creative expression does not result in a product. Creative individuals are identified by a set of personality traits. Researchers on creativity have come up with their own lists basing from their own research. Torrance (1962) has identified seven indicators of creativity as follows: curiosity, flexibility, sensitivity to problems, redefinition, self-feeling, originality and insight. Origin ally, these indicators were given to identify highly creative children. However, upon further analysis, such indicators likewise describe highly creative adults. Johnson (1972) has compiled a number of research in the field of creativity, and has come up with the main dimensions of creative achievement as intellectual leadership; sensitivity to problems; originality, ingenuity, unusualness; usefulness, appropriateness; and breadth. In terms of explaining creativity developing from a set of environmental conditions, it may be concluded that the greater one’s background of experiences with people, places, objects and life, in general, the greater the scope of possibilities to draw from in the expression of creativity. On the other hand, if one is naive and is not exposed to a variety of life experiences, his creative thinking may be limited to the small environment

Week #3 Learning Activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week #3 Learning Activity - Essay Example Large companies can tap an international labor force who can offer distinct local knowledge, competencies, and networks, and any other form of local and national advantages (Cullen and Parboteeah 265). Large companies also have recognized worldwide brands that do not need much marketing push. As a result, small businesses have to rely on firsthand research or secondary researches that are free, but not comprehensive or intensive, to design simple marketing strategies that they can afford. Small businesses have to invest on marketing strategies or tactics to improve brand awareness and brand loyalty for their businesses. Owners usually act as researchers too, in order to save money, while ensuring competitiveness: â€Å"The better a small business understands its customers, the better off it will be† (Chapter 6: Marketing Basics 21). The trend of the barrier is getting more intense in time as large companies merge or acquire other smaller companies (Cullen and Parboteeah 265). Internationalization is a strategic move that many large companies are taking advantage of which improves their brand equity across international markets (Cullen and Parboteeah 265). Small businesses do not need to match the marketing strategies and expenses of their large competitors, but scale down marketing research to fit the marketing mix that they can meet the expense of (Chapter 6: Marketing Basics 11). This way, small businesses can understand their strengths and use them to optimize market opportunities and to reduce market threats, especially competition from large

The Big Five Essay Example for Free

The Big Five Essay After taking the big 5 personality test I am describe as: Scale C: Conscientiousness. People with high scores are described as well-organized, responsible, and reliable. I guess I do carry all of these traits in my personality, the upsides of been conscientiousness is that I have a strong motivation to do anything that I want to achieve either in my workplace or in my personal life. One example of that is that am coming two this days a week to Devry so I can get my Bachelor Degree on Business is been hard since I have a fifteen old month baby, but since am very focus on achieving this goal there is nothing that can’t stop me now. And I do carry it in my workplace too, am highly motivate to perform any assignment that has been given to me and I do apply the term â€Å"acting as my own boss†. The downsides of been conscientiousness can be that I do not have a social life right now since am concentrating myself at work, home and studying, for me those are the most important things right now. As you know I been working for these company in Boca Raton (Core, Inc. ) which they are distributors for ground support and aircraft equipment I been here over six years, when I started working here I was doing the quotations for our customers an as the years pass they gave me multiple assignments I always gave 100% in anything I was doing and I did learn a lot from my bosses and coworkers. With that said my bosses saw that I have a lot potential in me and that I was capable of having more responsibilities so they promoted me to Purchasing Manager so now am in charge of a group of people that I have to supervise on the daily basics and I have more work to do and I do learn a lot from my staff they make me a better leader and I can become a better each day because there is always room for improvement. My personality shapes my work, school and teamwork I am a triangle I like to lead people, my mother and my brother tell me that am a little bossy. I am a hard worker I like always to give the best of me in all situations if am school I try to do my best in all my homework since my goal is to have my diploma. I can say that I like to work in teams you get to share ideas and get in to a conclusion either to have a good conclusion or a good product.

The Influence of Technology on Literature Essay -- Computers Digital E

The Influence of Technology on Literature This essay will discuss the way new technologies have influenced some of the areas of literature. Whilst the writer of this essay acknowledges the development of cyber books for their pure entertainment value, this essay will focus on the influence of new technology in the practical advances in the literature and associated industries. This includes the influences that new technology has had on the entertainment aspect, the educational aspect, the industry aspect and the employment aspect. This essay will discuss the influence that new technologies and new uses for old technologies have had on some aspects of literature and the producers and consumers of books. This includes authors, publishers and of course the reader. The purpose of this article is to convince the reader that new technologies have a place in literature and that through an adoption rather than a fear of these technologies both authors, publishers and readers can benefit. The first issue to be considered is the influence and implications of new technologies on authors. For example, voice activated software. Voice activated software and writing materials are not a new technology. However, particularly in the literature industry it would appear that its full use is only just being recognised. Howell (2004) interviewed someone who he claims is a noted and famous author and reports of the nerve damage incurred in his elbow after years of typing at a typewriter and then computer whilst writing books. Unfortunately, being self-employed, workers compensation didn’t ‘kick in’ for this author and he was forced to think outside the box to find an alternative to continue his career. This author adapted voice activated soft... ...Some Technology Holdouts Find Computers Distracting, Impersonal. Knight Ridder Tribune Business News, 1. Howell, K. (2004). New Technology Solves Old Cases and Writes New Books. 2004, 25(16), 38. Lewis, P. (2004). Prose and Cons: Sony new E-Book. Fortune, 150(5), 62-64. Prain, V., & Hand, B. (2003). Using new technologies for learning: A case study of a whole-school approach. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(4), 441-447. Roush, W. (2002). The death of digital rights management? Technology Review, 105(2), 24-26. Staley, D. (2003). The Future of the book in a digital age. The Futurist, 37(5), 18. Strayhorn, C. K. (2004). Teaching the Tech-savvy. Fiscal Notes, 6-5. White, J., Anthony, J., Weeks, A. C., & Druin, A. (2004). The International Children's Digital Library: Exploring Digital Libraries for Children. Bookbird, 42(2), 8-15. The Influence of Technology on Literature Essay -- Computers Digital E The Influence of Technology on Literature This essay will discuss the way new technologies have influenced some of the areas of literature. Whilst the writer of this essay acknowledges the development of cyber books for their pure entertainment value, this essay will focus on the influence of new technology in the practical advances in the literature and associated industries. This includes the influences that new technology has had on the entertainment aspect, the educational aspect, the industry aspect and the employment aspect. This essay will discuss the influence that new technologies and new uses for old technologies have had on some aspects of literature and the producers and consumers of books. This includes authors, publishers and of course the reader. The purpose of this article is to convince the reader that new technologies have a place in literature and that through an adoption rather than a fear of these technologies both authors, publishers and readers can benefit. The first issue to be considered is the influence and implications of new technologies on authors. For example, voice activated software. Voice activated software and writing materials are not a new technology. However, particularly in the literature industry it would appear that its full use is only just being recognised. Howell (2004) interviewed someone who he claims is a noted and famous author and reports of the nerve damage incurred in his elbow after years of typing at a typewriter and then computer whilst writing books. Unfortunately, being self-employed, workers compensation didn’t ‘kick in’ for this author and he was forced to think outside the box to find an alternative to continue his career. This author adapted voice activated soft... ...Some Technology Holdouts Find Computers Distracting, Impersonal. Knight Ridder Tribune Business News, 1. Howell, K. (2004). New Technology Solves Old Cases and Writes New Books. 2004, 25(16), 38. Lewis, P. (2004). Prose and Cons: Sony new E-Book. Fortune, 150(5), 62-64. Prain, V., & Hand, B. (2003). Using new technologies for learning: A case study of a whole-school approach. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(4), 441-447. Roush, W. (2002). The death of digital rights management? Technology Review, 105(2), 24-26. Staley, D. (2003). The Future of the book in a digital age. The Futurist, 37(5), 18. Strayhorn, C. K. (2004). Teaching the Tech-savvy. Fiscal Notes, 6-5. White, J., Anthony, J., Weeks, A. C., & Druin, A. (2004). The International Children's Digital Library: Exploring Digital Libraries for Children. Bookbird, 42(2), 8-15.

Social Research Methods

Social Research Methods/Unobtrusive Research Introduction – Unobtrusive measures are ways of studying social behavior whithout affecting it in the process. Unobtrusive research is simply the methods of studying social behaviorwithout affecting it. – There are three types of unobtrusive research: Content Analysis Analysis of existing statistics Comparative and historical analysis Content Analysis – With content analysis you focus on the details of recorded human communications.For example you would analyze a painting a written document, photos, films, and things like face book. – Appropriate topics include who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect. For example, if our unit of analysis is writers, then we can use units of observation like novels written by them, chapters and paragraphs of the novels, etc. – Variable identification and measurement in content analysis depend on clarity of the unit of analysis. – Content Analysis involves coding which may attend to both manifest and latent content.The determination of latent content requires judgements by the researcher. – Both quantitative and qualitative techniques are appropriate for interpreting content analysis data. – There are four characteristics that are usually coded in content analysis: 1) Frequency – a count of the number of occurrences of a word, phrase, image, etc 2) Direction – the direction in meaning of the text content (e. g. positive vs negative or active vs passive) 3) Intensity – degree or strength of a text reference 4) Space – the size of the passage, image, or other content Strengths of content analysis:Research poses little to no harm on subjectsTime efficient, cheapAllows researcher to correct mistakesCan look at processes occurring over timeGood reliabilityWeaknesses of content analysis:-Limited to what the researcher is able to record -Validity can be limited – In content analysis we could employ any conventional sampling techniqu e like random, systematic, stratified, or clustered sampling. When concerning sub-sampling, sampling needs not to end with our unit of analysis.For example, if our unit of analysis is writers, then we can use units of observation like novels written by them, chapters and paragraphs of the novels, etc. Analyzing Existing Statistics – With analysis of existing statistics, your focus would be mainly statistics of different studies without confusing this with secondary analysis which is just obtaining a copy of somebody's data and carrying out ones own analysis. – When analyzing existing statistics, it may be the main source of data or a supplemental source of data. Most existing statistics come from governments and large intergovernmental organizations.When describing the units of analysis, existing statistics describe groups. You must be aware of the ecological fallacy. This means making assumptions regarding individuals based on characteristics of entire population. â⠂¬â€œ Whenever we base research on an analysis of data that already exists we’re limited to what exists. The existing data do not cover exactly what we are interested in, and our measurement may not be altogether valid representations of the variables and concepts we want to make conclusions about. Two characteristics of science are used to handle the problem of alidity in analysis of existing statistics: logical reasoning and replication. – Problems of validity in the analysis of existing statistics can often be handled through logical reasoning and replication. –Existing statistics often have problems of reliability, so they must be used with caution. Comparative and Historical Research – And lastly comparative and historical research which is the examination of societies (or other social units) over time and in comparison with one another. – An example of comparative and historical research is the U. S. nthropologist, Lewis Morgan, who saw a pro gression in societies from â€Å"savagery† to â€Å"barbarism† to â€Å"civilization. † Also Robert Redfield noticed the progression from â€Å"folk society† to â€Å"urban society. † Pitirim Sorokin however respresnts a different form of this research. He theorizes that societal trends follow a cycle pattern between two points of view. One he called â€Å"ideational† and the other â€Å"sensate. â€Å"Later he developed third point of view, which he called â€Å"idealistic. † – Historical research and sociology often use the same tools and datasets as history, but they have different goals. istoriography – methodology of doing historical research The comparative historical method was the backbone of 19th century sociology. Sociologists such as Durkheim and Weber focused in on societies and studied and categorized them during different stages of development. In the mid-twentieth century, as the United States became the center of sociological research, the comparative historical method virtually disappeared.It has been revived in the U. S. in the past 35 years by researchers inspired by the European sociological classics. – There are two types of sources a researcher can use when conducting historical research. )primary sources – physical artifacts of human societies; (ex. documents, letters, official records, personal recollections) 2)secondary sources – books and papers published by governments and historians; (ex. statistical running records) Examples of famous studies include Durkheim’s Study of Suicide and Kentor’Consequences of Globalization. – The unit of analysis of existing statistics describe groups.Means you must be aware of the ecological fallacy which involves making assumptions regarding individuals based on characteristics of entire population. Although often regarded as a qualitative method, comparative and historical research can make use of quantitative techniques. – Archives are the most important type of comparative and historical reserach because they are well maintained by reliable organizations. However, they can by biased or partially incomplete. Ethics and Unobtrusive Research – While the use of unobtrusive research does avoid many ethical issues that are frequently present in other techniques of data collection and analysis, potential ethical risks still exist.For example, the use of diaries or private communications in content analysis give rise to questions of confidentiality. – Sometimes even unobtrusive measures can raise the possibility of violating subjects privacy. – The general principles of honest observation, analysis, and reporting apply to all research techniques. – – Traditional Approaches – To conduct field research of the past, primarily using materials such as letters, diaries, documents, oral histories, etc. (often these are case studies and a re not necessarily comparative)To study different societies, using the differences and similarities to highlight macro-social theories, primarily using history books and newspapers (the facts of history themselves). Often these are studies of current history and are not necessarily truly historical. – The actual comparative study of societies and their development over long stretches of history using a variety of resources. This produces research that is both comparative and historical. – Coding: Procedure of turning raw data into a standardized form that can be interpreted by a machine and processed/analyzed.E. g. A processed scantron for an exam. Coding is the process whereby raw data are transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis. Content analysis is essentially a coding operation. In content analysis, communications- oral, written, or other- are coded or classified according to some conceptual framework. Coding in content analys is involves the logic of conceptualization and operation, as in other research methods, you must refine your conceptual frameworks and develop specific methods for observing in relation to that framework.Latent Content: In connection with content analysis, the underlying means of communication. E. g. In a war movie, how effective the movie depicted actual combat via the flow of the movie scenes or the general reality of how well the war was captured on a subjective interpretation. Latent content is as used in connection with content analysis, the underlying meaning of communications, as distinguished from their manifest content. – Manifest Content: In connection with content analysis, the actual concrete terms within human communication.E. g. In a war movie, how many times â€Å"fire†, â€Å"shoot†, or â€Å"bomb† is said (concrete, objective terms). Coding the manifest content, the visible surface content, of a communication is analogous to using a stand ardize questionnaire. Manifest coding is more reliable than latent coding, but is generally less valid – Archives are the most important source for this type of research. They are maintained by governments, private foundations, and some corporations and

Humans and Nature

How Religious Belief Connects with Humans And Nature Humans’ relationship towards nature is complicated. Phyllis Trible, a well known scholar, mentions in her paper A Tempest in a Text : Ecological Soundings in the Book of Jonah that â€Å"Theological language is ecological language† (Trible 189). It suggests that widespread religion has a reflection on the relationship between humans’ belief and nature. Besides, the two main characters, Arab and Jonah, from the movie Moby Dick and the religious book The book of Jonah, their different views of God are shown in their opposite actions towards nature. ? In the movie Moby Dick, Ahab, the captain, is the emblem of the pioneers leading in the exploration of the great nature. He challenges the mysterious nature fearlessly. Rather than praying to God for help when he encounters confronted and unexpected difficulties, he believes that he can overcome all those difficulties by himself and never ceases his expedition. In t he movie, Pequod, the whaling ship, is caught in a terrible storm. The sails should be put down for slowing ship’s speed in a storm. Starbuck, one of crew member, wants to furl a sail, but Ahab refuses.Ahab asks all of his sailors to hold sails tightly. When Starbucks tries to furl down sails, Arab threats Starbuck to stop by using an arrow. Ahab steadfastly continues battling with the nature to the end until finally his ship survives in bad weather. â€Å"Ahab called that Typhoon’s bluff; stood toe to toe with it and punched away till it hollared ‘quits’! † (Bradbury 158). Through the whole battle with the storm, Ahab even mocks at what he encounters. â€Å"Oh, how the gods enjoy playing with us. What’s the point of the game, I wonder?Sometimes I’m on the very edge of knowing-and then they toss me back in the box† (Bradbury 158). In Ahab’s mind, he is fighting against God, and choosing to put his own will above faith. Ah ab believes himself above the natural world, and almost a god. This belief lends him power and majesty that make him battle with nature. In the movie, Ahab’s persistence on chasing the white whale makes him act like a hero, however, his vengeance of whale also makes him overstep on the boundary of nature which leads him to the death.To Captain Ahab, the whale symbolizes the evil in the universe: â€Å"He is part of this wicked game that runs man from the cradle and bullies him into the grave, Moby Dick is evil ten times over, in a world where evil is common as sea-water† (Bradbury 90). So it is Ahab’s destiny to get rid of it. In the last part of scenes, Ahab has no chance of killing Moby Dick, yet he engages in his suicide plan to stab at the whale: â€Å"To the last I grapple with thee! from hell’s heart I stab at thee! ; for hate’s sake I spit my last breath at thee, though damned whale! Thus! I give up my spear! (BRADBURY 174). His plan to ki ll Moby Dick seals the tragic fate for himself and the crew of the Pequod. In the end the whale represents both noble peace and terrifying death. Besides, in the book, Ahab sees the graves of other sailors died in killing whales, and he gets predictions about his death from Fedallah. Those things not just happen accidentally to Ahab. In fact, it’s the fate already made by God try to stop Ahab’s actions of killing the whale. The whale is the combination of contradictions, a symbol of the universe's wide and mystery of God's boundless divine power, fate. ? God controls what we would consider â€Å"fate† in the casting of the fortune. In The Book of Jonah, Jonah opposes to God’s will and flees away which results in a storm created by the God in his journey. Jonah gets on a ship to Tarshish, and he encounters the storm: â€Å"The Lord, however, hurled such furious winds toward the sea that a powerful storm raged upon it; the ship expected itself to crack upà ¢â‚¬  (1:4). The storm is so powerful that all the sailors start to pray to the God for help. and the Lord, God of Heaven, I worship-he who made the sea, and the dry land as well† (1†10). Even though Jonah runs away from the Lord and has no thought for the spiritual condition of his shipmates; his life still brought them closer to God. However, the storm just gets worse. Jonah tells sailors in order to worship God, they can calm the sea by throwing him into the sea. â€Å"If you lift me and cast me overboard, the sea will calm its raging against you, for I personally acknowledge that this massive tempest raging against you is on my own account† (1:12).Jonah has no doubt that his rebellion against God is the cause of the storm that threatened to sink the ship they are sailing upon. Hence, humans fear of unexpected natural power and then pray to God for help. Contrary to how the white whale drives Ahab crazy which result in Ahab’s death with the whale, the whale in The Book of Jonah changes Jonah’s attitudes toward God and saves him from his sin. God does not put Jonah into death immediately, instead, he sends out a fish. â€Å"The Lord directed a large fish to swallow Jonah.Jonah remained in the belly of the fish three days and three nights† (2:1). Jonah is helpless in the fish’s belly and starts to repent and pray to God :â€Å" In my trouble, I appeal to the Lord; he answers me†¦ as for me, voicing gratitude, I shall offer you sacrifices; I shall fulfill all that I vow† (2: 10). By singing the thanksgiving song, Jonah starts to be thankful to God and he realizes that he is still connecting with God. God as a merciful and generous figure in The Book of Jonah, he saves Jonah from the fish. The Lord spoke to the fish and made it vomit Jonah upon dry land† (2:11). From an ecological point of view, Phyllis Trible clams in her book â€Å" If the verb ‘swallow’ suggest that fish is a ho stile environment for Jonah, the verb ‘vomit’suggests that the fish is a hostile environment for the fish†¦ In a bulimic exercise the animal of the sea rejects human fodder† (Trible 190). This ecological danger recalls Jonah’s inner instincts to God: â€Å"Yet God brought up his life from the Pit, and to this God he rendered thanks† (Trible 190).In other words, The whale as well as considered to be â€Å"hostile environment†, represents the nature power that given by God. It suggests that humans should always keep their faith to the God, thus, God can rescue humans from the danger and forgive their sins. When humans are building the relationship with nature, if they are going against nature they cannot get the results they want, instead, if they working along with nature which can actually leads to peace. In the movies, even if Ahab orders his crew to chase Moby Dick again and again, the white whale does not surrender but appears to coun terattack.It attacks the boats, wrecks the whaling ship and brings much pain to human beings. God’s power and embodiment of justice are shown through nature. God warns human beings that if they still destroy nature unshakably, they will be buried by divine nature eventually. It is difficult for human beings relying on our own insufficient power to win the battle between nature and them. In contrast, Jonah suppose to preach God’s will to Nineveh, however, he is from the country which is defeated by Nieveh, thus he is reluctant to deliver God’s message.God puts Jonah into hostile environment and wants Jonah to learn about tolerance through Jonah’s repent. Jonah realizes his sin and start to believe God again which results in later God saves his life. His confession to God adequately proves that his humans’ tolerance has persuaded him to give up his enmity. Human beings can get along well with nature and they can keep a harmonious relationship with na ture. However, keeping the harmonious relationship must be based on human beings’tolerance to nature.

Essay on Egyptian Civilization

Essay on Egyptian Civilization Essay on Egyptian Civilization Essay on Egyptian CivilizationPeriods of Egyptian civilizationThe Egyptian civilization is not only viewed as one of the oldest civilizations, but also as one of the most durable ones. It is traditionally divided into the following major periods:1) Pre-Dynastic period (Prior to 3100 BC). During this period 42 territorial and political unities were formed. As a result of political, economic and military cooperation, they were merged creating the two major political formations: Upper Egypt (south) and Lower Egypt (north). Those, in turn, become part of a single Egyptian state. 2) Early Dynastic Period (1st–2nd Dynasties). Ancient Egyptian pharaoh Menes, the founder of the 1st Dynasty united Egypt in a whole. The integrity of the country was strengthened by establishing a centralized irrigation system and an administrative apparatus of the invention and spread of hieroglyphic writing. 3) Period of the Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties). Egypt is considered to be a powerful st ate based on economic and political factors. Economic prosperity and political stability have made possible the improvement of the irrigation system, as well as the construction of the pyramids such as Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure symbols of Egyptian civilization. 4) The first transitional period (VII-X Dynasties). This is a time of the internal strife and the collapse of the centralized state. The city of Thebes became one of the major centers that played a huge role in Ancient Egypt. 5) Period of the Middle Kingdom (XI-XIII Dynasties). The country was reunited, and the power of the prefecture leaders was limited. Egypt increased its territory, particularly in the south. In addition to this, it launched glass manufacturing and started a proliferation of tools made of bronze. 6) The second transitional period (XIV-XVII Dynasties). Egyptian states collapsed due to the invasion of the Hyksos nomadic tribes of Semitic origin, invaded from Asia and conquered the northern and central par ts of the country. The rulers of Thebes led national liberation struggles that ended the expulsion of the Hyksos. As a result, â€Å"the Hyksos attacked Egypt and occupied the Egyptian lands. Yet, the princes of Thebes, led by Ahmos I, managed to expel them out of Egypt† (â€Å"Pharaonic Era,† 2009, para. 9). 7) Period of the New Kingdom (XVIII-XX Dynasties). The era of the heyday of Egyptian civilization. Egypt expanded its ownership to the Euphrates in the east and the third cataract of the Nile in the south. Pharaohs put more effort to keep their land in the fight against the Hittite Empire, and later with the Sea Peoples. 8) Late Period (XXI-XXVI Dynasties). The time of strife, invasions and alien dominations: Libyan, Nubian, Assyrian. During this period, Egypt survived its last ascent. 9) The period of Persian rule (XXVII Dynasties). The Persian Empire conquered Egypt, but the increase in the tax oppression and abuse led to the Persians, the Egyptians revolted and liberated the country. 10) The last period of the independence of Egypt (XXVIII-XXX Dynasties). The union reduced to the internal strife that caused the weakening of the state and the restoration of Persian influence. 11) The period of the Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine domination (342 BC. 646 BC.). In 332 BC, Persians were driven out by Alexander the Great. After the collapse of the empire Alexander the Great in Egypt established the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty, which lasted until the time of the Roman conquest.However, â€Å"the end of the Old Kingdom was not the end of Egyptian civilization†¦The calamity triggered by low Nile floods was the impetus to radical social changes and a reformulation of the notion of kingship. The legacy of this period is still with us today† (Hassan, 2011, para. 20).Hence, as we can see Ancient Egypt started with the primary association of tribes in the valley of the River Nile in 3150 BC and ended around 31 BC, when the Roman Empi re conquered Egypt. The latter event is not the first period of foreign Dominion, but the arrival of the Romans marked significant changes in the cultural and religious life of Egypt, as well as the termination of Egypt as a unified civilization. Ancient Egypt developed over three and a half thousand years. It all started with the primary association of tribes in the valley of the River Nile in 3150 BC and ended around 31 BC, when the Roman Empire conquered Egypt. The latter event is not the first period of foreign reign, but the arrival of the Romans marked the significant changes in the cultural and religious life of Egypt, as well as the termination of Egypt as a unified civilization.The significance of the Nile RiverThe basis of the existence of ancient Egypt was a constant control of balance of natural and human resources , which primarily meant control over the irrigation of the fertile valley of the Nile , the use of minerals occurring in the valley and surrounding desert reg ions, the development of independent systems of writing and literature, the organization of collective projects, trade with neighbors in eastern and central Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, and, finally, military campaigns, which demonstrated the strength and power of the empire, as well as the territorial advantage over neighboring cultures at different periods of time. Those actions were organized and motivated by socio-political and economic elite that reached a social consensus through a system of religious means. For administrative purposes, Egypt was divided into different districts. Starting from the pre-dynastic period (3100 BC) ‘noma’ represented an individual city. In the days of the Pharaohs a whole country was divided into 42 nomes.In Egypt, different taxes were paid according to the type of activity. The vizier controlled revenues from the people in the budget and plans for the collection. The householders also have to pay taxes, as annually they were engaged in social work for at least several weeks. There is no doubt that Egyptian civilization is widely known for its major achievements. This was â€Å"a time of a spectacular development in mathematics, astronomy, transport, government organization, and food production† (Kozma, 2006, p. 303).   It was a civilization that has reached a very high standard of production and intellectual activity as well as art and engineering (surveying), which led to the creation of the pyramids. Egyptians invented the hydraulic cement. In fact, â€Å"the first pyramid ever built in Egypt was Zosers, then Midums pyramid. However, the Giza pyramids together with the Sphinx, built during the 4th Dynasty, are the most famous of the 97 pyramids built to be tombs for Pharaohs† (â€Å"Pharaonic Era,† 2009, para. 12). Thanks to the irrigation system, Egypt became the breadbasket of the ancient world. Lake Fayoum was used by Pharaohs as a reservoir for the storage of excess water, w hich was very important during droughts.Egyptians’ cultures and worldviews were mainly based on the River Nile. Their view of the world, unlike most other nations, was focused not on the north and south, but mostly on the origins of the river. In addition, the river itself determined the three main seasons. Each of them consisted of four months:   1) July October; 2) November February; and 3) March June the harvest period and the lowest water level. Hapi as the god of the annual flooding of the Nile was portrayed as a fat man who brings gifts to the gods of the earth. Many pharaohs and the local nobility compared themselves with this divinity. In fact, â€Å"the Nile River brought an unlimited supply of water to the desert and the yearly flood built a fertile valley along the riverbanks. The almost regular and predictable pattern of yearly flooding of the Nile River guaranteed irrigation of the fields and adequate food production which caused the civilization to flouri sh† (Kozma, 2006, p. 303). Thus, it is possible to sum up that â€Å"the Nile valley is one of the oldest places in the world where its ancient inhabitants husbanded the water resources that engendered the valley a cradle of civilization, thereby creating ancient polities and empires† (Arsano, 2007, p. 25). The Nile River was an important shipping thread connecting Upper and Lower Egypt with Nubia (Ethiopia). In such favorable conditions, Egypt began the construction of irrigation canals. The need to service an extensive irrigation network has led to the emergence of polynomials large territorial associations of early farming communities. This particular area is denoted as a nome, written in the ancient Egyptian language depicting the land, and divided into sections of the irrigation network of the correct form. The system of Egyptian nomes, formed in the 4th millennium BC, remained the basis for Governorates of Egypt to the end of its existence. Creating a unified sys tem of irrigated agriculture has become a prerequisite for the emergence of a centralized state in Egypt. At the end of the 4th century BC and at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC the process of unification of certain polynomials has been implemented. This distinction throughout Egyptian history preserved in the division of the country into Upper and Lower Egypt and was reflected even in the titles of the Pharaohs, who were called â€Å"Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt.†Egyptian people venerated many different gods. Some of them were very old and looked more like animals cats, bulls, and crocodiles and thus they were kept in special rooms, ponds or stalls. Any insult to animals was punishable by death. Each nome had its own gods (sometimes unknown outside it), but there were various deities accepted throughout the country: Gore, Ra, Osiris, Isis, and others. As a result, Egyptians associated myths about the gods with the phenomena of nature, the major seasons, the floodi ng of the Nile River.In addition to the above-mentioned information, it is possible to add that thanks to Ancient Egypt, many contemporary people can use various inventions in their everyday lives, such as the invention of the alphabet and calendar. Like other nations, the Egyptians first took a time-calculation basis for the lunar year (354 days). But they soon realized that such a system did not have sufficient accuracy and prevented the smooth functioning of complex administrative machinery.ConclusionThus, taking the above-mentioned information into consideration, it is possible to draw a conclusion that Egypt is not only considered to be one of the oldest civilizations, but also one of the most durable ones. The major reason is, first of all, its location: the country as it stands alone, apart from other states and empires. As a result, Egypt got the opportunity to grow in the fertile valley of the Nile, without any outside interference and influence. Like a long stem of the pap yrus, it stretches from the south to the north, where the river flows into a series of flows in the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, Egyptian civilization is widely recognized for its major achievements in different aspects of our life. This was a time of various developments in various fields such mathematics, astronomy, food production, and more. Indeed, it was a civilization that has reached very high standards of production and intellectual activity as well as art and engineering processes (surveying), which resulted in the creation of the different pyramids known all over the world.The flooding of the Nile is like a gift for many farmers in Egypt. In addition, it is an important natural cycle in Egypt because it is presented in the form of brown sludge on the farmers’ lands. Moreover, Egypt itself has developed as a centralized state with its own system of writing. It soon became the center of a highly developed civilization where philosophy and literature, architecture a nd art, science and medicine have been flourished, as well as the management systems and the organizations of society have been formed. All in all, due to its geographical location and access to the Mediterranean Sea, the Egyptians had a brilliant opportunity to contact with Europe, which is constantly expanding, and the influence of Egypt on the western culture has enriched the entire world civilization.

10 Common Mistakes You Make on Tests

10 Common Mistakes You Make on Tests 1. Leaving an Answer Blank There is nothing wrong with skipping over a tough question to give yourself some extra time to think it overjust as long as you remember to go back to the question later. The danger is forgetting to go back to every question you’ve skipped. A blank answer is always a wrong answer! Solution: Each time you skip a question, put a check mark beside it. 2. Answering a Question Twice You’d be surprised how many times students choose two answers in multiple choice. This makes both answers wrong! Solution: Review your work and make sure each true/false and multiple choice question only has one answer circled! 3. Transferring Answers Incorrectly From Scratch Paper The most frustrating mistake for math students is having an answer correct on the scratch paper, but transferring it wrong to the test! Solution: Double check any work you transfer from a scratch sheet. 4. Circling the Wrong Multiple Choice Answer This is a costly mistake, but one that is very easy to make. You look over all the multiple choice answers and pick the one that is correct, but you circle the letter next to the correct answer- the one that doesn’t match your answer! Solution: Make sure the letter/answer you indicate is the one you really mean to select. 5. Studying the Wrong Chapter Whenever you have a test coming up, make sure that you understand which chapters or lectures the test will cover. There are times when a teacher will test you on a specific chapter that is never discussed in class. On the other hand, the teacher’s lectures may cover three chapters, and the test may cover only one of those chapters. When that happens, you can end up studying material that won’t appear on your exam. Solution: Always ask the teacher what chapters and lectures will be covered on a test. 6. Ignoring the Clock One of the most common errors students commit when taking an essay test is failing to manage time. This is how you end up in a panic with 5 minutes to go and 5 unanswered questions staring back at you. Solution: Always take the first few moments of an exam to assess the situation when it comes to essay questions and answers. Give yourself a time schedule and stick to it. Give yourself a set amount of time to outline and answer each essay question and stick to your plan! 7. Not Following Directions If the teacher says â€Å"compare† and you â€Å"define,† you are going to lose points on your answer. There are certain directional words that you should understand and follow when you take a test. Solution: Know the following directional words: Define: Provide a definition.Explain: Provide an answer that gives a complete overview or clear description of the problem and solution for a particular question.Analyze: Take apart a concept or a process, and explain it step by step.Contrast: Show differences.Compare: Show likenesses and differences.Diagram: Explain and draw a chart or other visual to illustrate your points.Outline: Provide an explanation with headings and subheadings. 8. Thinking Too Much It’s easy to over-think a question and begin to doubt yourself. If you tend to second-guess yourself, you will inevitably change a right answer to a wrong answer. Solution: If you are a thinker who tends to over-think, and you get a strong hunch when you first read an answer, go with it. Limit your thinking time if you know you tend to doubt your first instincts. 9. Technological Breakdown If your pen runs out of ink and you can’t complete an exam, your blank answers are just as wrong as they would have been for any other reason. Running out of ink or breaking your pencil lead halfway through a test sometimes means leaving half your exam blank. And that leads to an F. Solution: Always bring extra supplies to an exam. 10. Not putting Your Name on the Test There are times when failing to put your name on a test will result in a failing grade. This can happen when the test administrator doesn’t know the students, or when the teacher/administrator won’t see students again after the test is over (like at the end of a school year). In these special situations (or even if you have a very stern teacher) a test that doesn’t have a name attached to it will be tossed out. Solution: Always write your name on a test before you get started!

Reflection paper about the annishnaabe people Research - 1

Reflection about the annishnaabe people - Research Paper Example Clearly, the residential schools system had a massive effect on the culture of the Anishinabe. While the white Christian faithful saw the system as a way of assimilating them and promoting peaceful coexistence, the school stream eroded the culture of the Anishinabe. The federal policy of residential schools made the engaged Anishinabe unacceptable in their society. They were detached from their system while the federal system did not fully accept them. The federal policy did more harm than good. It was wrong for people who claimed to follow the Christian guidelines to put Anishinabe children forcefully in residential schools and force them to disown their language and cultural practices. The white community of the time showed double standards as they advocated autonomy in their society. In God is Red, Vine Deloria condemns the hypocritical nature of the white people in the society and the government. More so, Deloria sees the religious imposition on the Anishinabe as hypocritical (43 ). These claims are very accurate. It is regrettable that the white people in the residential schools mistreated the Anishinabe children, degraded them and eventually made them lose their cultural identity. Basically, the white people used religion hypocritically to pursue their agenda of dominion over the native people in the region. The Anishinabe’s resistance to residential school was justified. After all, the residential schools only made them lose their identity, face physical and sexual abuse and become physiologically crippled. Though they were overwhelmed due to the superiority of the white Christian settlers, their cause was worthwhile. They could not have experienced relief later on such as the right to conduct their traditional rites if they did not rise against the residential schools. Benton-Banai writes, the clan system of the Anishinabe was instrumental in directing resistance. As a governing body, their actions were entirely

Research project , choice given Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research project , choice given - Essay Example The problems and opportunities of biotechnology are discussed to give a glimpse of what the contradictions are all about. The opportunities presented by biotechnology have by far seen the world improve mostly in the field of agriculture and other science sectors. The most popular opportunity is through agricultural biotechnology. The technology behind genetically modified foods has provided food security for globally with the US as the leading users of the foods. The advancement of genetically modified foods have combated most food insecurity issues in most third world countries in Africa and other countries like Haiti. With the general world population rising, the natural resources are not enough for conventional farming thus posing a threat to hunger for the billions of people across the world. After the introduction of GMO’s, the world food shortage problem has been greatly curbed. Following GMO advances, Africa has also started practicing agriculture biotechnology same as the US. With good leadership and believe in science, there is an opportunity from biotechnology to provide the necessary nutritional needs through farm breeds. Protein is one nutrient that is lacking in most African countries leading to malnutrition and other health related problems. Genomics is a part of biotechnology and with the recent advances, it has offered an opportunity to provide farm breeds with the needed nutrients such as proteins. For instance farmed fish can provide more protein than normal cattle. However, this needs to be steered forward with correct governance that will allocate the necessary resources for this to be possible. It is a great opportunity to provide nutrients in other ways other than the conventional ways which are limited. Also, there have been advance in forensic science, a branch of biotechnology that focuses on DNA extraction and identification. The technology has been of use in the US, but this opportunity is rare in most

Business-Level Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business-Level Strategy - Case Study Example Through expanding their array of products, the company would attract more clients; thus, remain the leader in business (Hill & Jones 179-80). Apple Inc. would adopt the strategy of differentiation. As Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson argue, this strategy allows companies create products with inimitable features at minimal costs (115-123). Through this strategy as well, a company can adapt novel technology and all changes that may take place in its external environment. With cost and differentiation at hand, Apple Inc. can easily attract clients and produce unique products at very low costs. This will ensure that the company remains proficient in its production; thus, retain the existing clients and attract more. This also translates to the actuality that Apple Inc. must have flexible structure of production, quality management and networks that will see to the manufacture of top quality products as the strategy stipulates (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson

Analysis of Liver Disease in Europe

Analysis of Liver Disease in Europe To what extent does alcohol contribute to liver disease in Europe? Alcoholic liver disease is the major complication of chronic alcohol abuse, with cirrhosis (with or without portal hypertension), being the most common end-point of the spectrum of complications. This association is seen throughout virtually all populations, demographic groups and clinical sub-sets. (Walsh K et al. 2000) It is notable that the incidence of the disease process is changing on a world-wide consideration, with countries such as India and Japan recently seeing a rapid escalation in numbers of cases of cirrhosis, from their traditionally low baseline of prevalence of the disease. This essay however, will primarily consider the situation in Europe. Considerations of safe limits to alcohol consumption have to be prefaced with the comments that they are controversial, and that there is no common agreement on a minimum safe level. In the UK, the Royal College of Physicians suggest a weekly limit of 21 units (210 g) of alcohol in men and 14 units in women as being the upper limit of â€Å"safe† use. This has to be seen in the context that the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys General Household Survey found that 27% of men and 13% of women in the UK were found to be exceeding these limits in 2004 (OPCS 2004) This can be contrasted with the findings of an Italian study (Bellentani S et al. 1997) which suggested that the â€Å"significant risk threshold† for the subsequent development of alcoholic liver disease in an Italian population was only 30g of ethanol per day and that the risk escalated with progressively higher levels of intake. The authors also noted that, for a given level of intake, women had a significantly higher risk of developing alcoholic liver disease than did age-matched men. On a critical note, one must concede that this was a prospective non-randomised study with a moderate (6,500) entry cohort. This can be compared with a larger Danish study (13,000 entry cohort) which demonstrated a statistically significant increase in the risk of alcoholic liver disease at levels of intake above 14 27 units per week in males and 7 13 units in females. (Becker U et al. 1996) One cannot conclude, from this data, that different European populations have different susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease. One of the major practical difficulties in mounting a major prospective study of this nature is the control of the huge number of variables that may influence the outcome, not least of which is the fact that no individual person drinks a uniform quantity of alcohol per day over many years. There are also considerations of the possibility of variation of effect of different proprietary brands of alcohol-containing drinks as well as the (largely under researched) area of the long term effect of binge drinking. Virtually all studies however, demonstrate a steep dose dependent increase in alcoholic liver disease above a threshold level of alcohol intake with women having a greater incidence of the disease than men at a given age range and level of intake. The reasons for this sex difference is not completely clear with Kwo et al. demonstrating that if one adjusts for body mass and liver size, then both men and women have equivalent biological rates of alcohol degradation. (Kwo P Y et al. 1998) A number of authorities (viz. Teli M R et al. 2005) suggest that these gender differences in susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease may be due to primarily to pharmacokinetic reasons including differences in the rates of ethanol absorption or alternatively, differences in the degree of response of the liver to alcohol induced injury such as that caused by oxidative by-products of ethanol metabolism in the liver. If one accepts the difficulties inherent in trying to define the lower margins of â€Å"safe† levels of alcohol drinking, then it is also appropriate to consider the problem from the other end of the spectrum. There are many studies in the literature which have considered the incidence and natural history of alcoholic liver disease in a population of heavy drinkers who, by definition, will show a much higher prevalence of the disease process. A comparatively old study by La Vecchia et al. showed a Europe-wide reducing trend in alcoholic liver disease in the recent past (La Vecchia, C et al. 1994) and this should be compared with data which shows that the deaths from alcoholic liver disease are actually increasing in the UK (CMO 2001). More specific recent data shows that this increase is disproportionately represented by the young adult and middle aged population in the UK showing an 8-fold rise since the 1970s (Leon, D. A et al. 2006) There is a general perception that end-stage alcoholic liver disease (in the form of cirrhosis) is only seen in those patients who demonstrate alcohol dependence syndrome (viz. Smith et al. 2004 and Luca A et al. 2007). There is a growing body of evidence which suggests that this may not actually be the case. If one considers one of the landmark papers on alcohol dependence and related disease processes, one could cite the classification of Jellinek who categorised five â€Å"sub-species† of alcoholism in his authoritative work in the area. (Jellinek, E. M. 1960 A). The current significance of his initial classification is that he identified two specific types of â€Å"alcoholics†, the ‘ß alcoholics’ who are not alcohol dependant, but who have a disproportionately high incidence of alcohol-related diseases, such as cirrhosis and contrasted this to the gamma alcoholics who were typically highly physically dependent, demonstrated frequent behavioural problems and had a high incidence of sociological complications. Jellinek made deductions about why these groups had different drinking patterns suggesting that the tendency towards heavy drinking in the ß alcoholic group was related to the customs and peer pressures within their social group, whereas gamma alcoholism was characterised, in part, by drinking to relieve a psychological craving and a physical addiction. (Jellinek, E. M. 1960 B). In the context of this examination, one can intuitively suggest that the customs, peer pressures and social groupings may be one of the more salient causes of different patterns of alcohol use across the various national cultures of Europe. There is a further difficulty in that, a brief overview of the literature on the subject of alcoholic liver disease shows that, in the context of Jellinek’s theoretical framework, which describes the population of drinkers who present to healthcare professionals with liver disease as a distinctly separate (although overlapping) population from those who present with alcohol dependence, there is a comparative paucity of studies which look at the drinking patterns, social factors and attitudes in patients with alcoholic liver disease when one compares it with the wealth of literature on alcohol dependence. This may seem to be an academic inference, but one can cite the authority of the often quoted Wodak study which identified significant differences between the population of typical patients with alcoholic liver disease and a population of patients who were recruited from an alcohol treatment centre for dependence, presenting evidence that only 18% of patients who had clinical alcoholic liver disease were severely dependent on alcohol and this contrasted with 56% of the attendees at the alcohol treatment centres. The authors also found that 63% of the patients who were found to have alcoholic liver disease had only a mild or moderate dependence on alcohol. (Wodak, A. D. et al. 1983). If one looks beyond the confines of Europe, one can cite the authority of an Indian study (Sarin, S. K et al. 1998) which found broadly similar results. More recent studies using liver transplant patients (viz. Burra, P. et al. 2000) have also produced similar results, although there is an obvious source of potential selection bias in such studies in the desire of certain patients to be accepted onto a transplant programme and this bias will (intuitively) vary between the different patterns of medical care provided across Europe. The problem confronting many researchers is the difficulty in clinically defining alcoholic liver disease. Many patients may be unaware that they are developing significant problems until the time of presentation. The first presentation may be with acute upper gastrointestinal tract haemorrhage or with alcoholic hepatitis. Both conditions frequently present in the absence of warning signs of a developing alcohol dependence. (Vorobioff J et al. 1996). The Harry et al. study reporting that the first presentation of alcoholic liver disease may actually be fatal with uncontrollable bleeding oesophageal varices carrying an immediate 25% mortality rate, (Harry, R. et al. 2002), a finding also found in the Brett study. (Brett, B. T. et al. 2001). Mathurin suggests that in patients who present with severe alcoholic hepatitis, over 50% may die. (Mathurin, P et al. 1996) If one considers data from other European centres, the Italian Loguercio study considered the pattern of drinking in indigenous Italians who had Hepatitis C. (Loguercio C et al. 2000). This is particularly significant in the Italian population as their prevalence of Hepatitis C is the highest in Europe. (De Bac, C. et al. 2004). It is well known that Hepatitis C infection is associated with a higher incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma, but it is not know the extent to which subsequent alcohol intake influences the natural progression of the disease process. The Loguercio study sought to explore this feature and makes the observation that only 4 5% of all manuscripts submitted to â€Å"Hepatology† deal with alcohol-related liver disease, which exemplifies the point made earlier. In direct consideration of the thrust of this examination, the extent to which alcohol contributes to liver disease is modified by the presence of complicating factors such as Hepatitis B and C. Loguercio et al. suggest that there is a direct interaction between alcohol and the viruses, other authorities (viz. Ostapowicz, G et al. 1998) suggest that an additional mechanism of disease modification is that the presence of alcohol affects the response to interferon therapy (IFN). The latter belief has a poor evidence base as Mabee points to the fact that, without exception, none of the controlled trials published thus far on the efficacy of IFN treatment of Hepatitis C-related liver disease have determined the alcohol intake levels prior to therapy. ((Mabee, C. L. et al. 2008) Lieberman has shown that chronic alcohol intake levels correlate well with gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) levels. (Lieberman, M. W. et al. 1995) and these levels have been shown by Camps to be extremely predictive of treatment (Camps, J. et al. 1993). In this way it is possible to make the direct connection that alcohol intake clearly directly influences the rate of progression of hepatic pathology, a claim that has been further strengthened by the large retrospective analysis by Pol et al. who examined and correlated the rate of progression of the disease process (in Hepatitis C and HIV/AIDS hepatitis, with the overall intake of alcohol. (Pol, S. et al. 1998). The authors demonstrated that alcohol intake of the patient directly influences their gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) plasma levels and the rate of progression of the disease process. There is further evidence of the degree to which alcohol influences liver disease, at a histological level, in the form of the Scheuer paper. (Scheuer, P. J. et al. 2001). In congruence with the thrust of this segment of the paper, we can cite the authority of Scheuer who correlated the degree of fibrosis and steatosis with the average levels of alcohol intake and Pessione who noted that the degree of fibrosis in patients with Hepatitis C chronic hepatitis was related to the history of alcohol intake. (Pessione, F. et al. 1998) To return to the Loguercio study, the authors comment that the Italian cohort was typical for the country, (but atypical for Europe) as there is known to be a high alcohol intake per head of the population in Italy, even after making allowances for the fact that alcohol intake has fallen in the last decade (SPE 2004). In an attempt to evaluate the effects of alcohol on the population with alcoholic liver disease the study considered three important markers namely : (1) To estimate how many subjects in our country misused alcohol before and after being diagnosed as having HCV-related chronic liver disease (2) To determine if their drinking habits affected the principal aspects of this disease: routine laboratory data (particularly GT plasma levels), histological pattern (particularly liver steatosis and fibrosis), HCV RNA levels, and response to IFN therapy; (3) To compare results from this and a previous study (Aricà ² et al., 1994) to determine if CLD subjects have modified their drinking habits since a decrease was observed in the general population. (Loguercio C et al. 2000). The study is both long and complex, with rigorous statistical analysis. In essence, the authors were able to demonstrate that the majority of patients with Hepatitis C liver disease still regularly drank significant amounts of alcohol. Patients with hepatitis were more likely to drink alcohol than those with cirrhosis. They were also able to confirm that there were significantly higher levels of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) and greater levels of fibrosis associated with higher levels of alcohol in male subjects. Interestingly, women had higher levels of fibrosis than men even if they were total abstainers or less than 40 g/daily of alcohol, but their gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) levels did reflect the overall alcohol intake. This is very supportive of the hypothesis that women appear to have lower levels of defence against the oxidative insult produced by alcohol intake and may therefore develop a more marked fibrotic infiltration. We know, from other evidence that clinic ally, women appear to have more severe and rapidly progressive hepatitic disease processes than men. (Watson, R. R. ed. 2001) To consider a more general overview of the Europe-wide situation, one can consider the Rehm review paper which considers the implications of alcohol usage and mortality rates across the European continent. (Rehm J et al. 2007). The review itself is in commendable depth and provides an excellent evidence base for the area of investigation. The main points presented can be summarised. There is still a general all-cause mortality gradient from west to east across Europe which is more pronounced in males. (Zatonski W et al. 2000). In statistical terms, the western (old EU) countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and UK) had a male life expectancy of 75.7 yrs and a female life expectancy of 81.5 yrs. In the central European countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) these expectancy figures have fallen to 70.9 and 78.7 respectively. In the new Baltic states (Estonia, L atvia, and Lithuania) it is 65.3 and 76.8 yrs respectively and in the Russian Federation it was 58.3 for men and 71.8 for women. It can be seen from these figures that the life expectancy for men varies by 17.4 years and 9.7 yrs for women. It should be noted that a later, but less exhaustive, study by Vagero demonstrated that by 2005, while life expectancies were slightly higher, the overall gradient and pattern of mortality remained unchanged. (Vagero D 2007). A number of authorities (viz. Men T et al. 2003 and McKee M et al. 2001) have highlighted the levels of alcohol consumption, in addition to smoking and poor nutrition, as being the main determinants of this gradient. Rhem has also identified alcohol as being the prime determinant of premature mortality in the Russian federation. (Rehm J et al. 2003 A) Rhem presents a systematic analysis of alcohol-attributable mortality and disease burden by country, and considers two major aspects in each case namely, both the level of consumption and the patterns of drinking, the latter mainly referring to irregular heavy drinking occasions. (Rehm J et al. 2007). These two aspects are not straightforward, as an illustrative example of France and Sweden demonstrates. France has a traditional wine drinking culture with overall high levels of alcohol consumption but a relatively low proportion of people drinking to intoxication, Sweden, by contrast, has an increasing, but still relatively low level of overall alcohol consumption but a social tradition of irregular heavy drinking. The study highlights Hungary as being notable for having the highest mortality rates in the EU for several alcohol-related pathologies such as liver cirrhosis, together with malignant neoplasms of lip, oral cavity and pharynx. It is reported that for the age range 20 64 yrs, alcohol plays a part in premature deaths of 25% of the population of Hungary. Cirrhosis is particularly high in Hungary and it is postulated that the high consumption of home made spirits may be a relevant factor. (Szucs S et al. 2005). It is also recognised that the culturally acceptable pattern of drinking in Hungary to a high level of alcohol intake with many heavy drinking occasions. The study gives a graphic breakdown of alcohol-related indices across the continent thus: New EU member states Old EU member states Czech Republic Hungary Lithuania Poland France Sweden UK Russia Adult per capita in l pure alcohol 17.0 14.9 17.2 11.7 14.5 9.9 13.4 15.5 Recorded in l pure alcohol 16.0 11.9 12.3 8.7 13.5 6.9 11.4 10.6 Unrecorded in l pure alcohol 1.0 3.0 4.9 3.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 4.9 Patterns of drinkinga 2 3 3 3 1 3 3 4 Preferred beverage beer wine/beer/spirits beer/spirits spirits/beer wine beer beer spirits Men % abstention/very light drinking 9.0 12.0 10.0 16.4 7.3 10.0 9.2 13.8 % >40 g/dayb 59.4 47.0 41.0 38.5 50.8 18.3 38.6 53.1 Women % abstention/very light drinking 19.1 27.0 28.0 34.3 11.1 16.0 14.3 27.5 % >40 g/day 7.0 16.0 8.0 9.0 7.0 3.8 10.3 8.4 aEstimated average pattern of drinking (1–4 with 4 being the most detrimental pattern; see text for more explanation and13 for the full algorithm used). b>40 g/day on average correspond to more than 3–4 drinks on average per day (1 drink is one can of beers of 0.33 l or one small glass of wine or one shot of spirits). (After Rehm J et al. 2007). There is considerable discussion surrounding the issue of alcohol-attributable mortality and death rates in the various European regions with Russia yielding the highest figures (29.0/10,000 person-years). An unexplained anomaly was found in that France and the UK show consistently higher rates of alcohol-attributable mortality in women than the general trend in the other countries when compared to the equivalent male rates. The overall alcohol-attributable mortality is greater in the male population with the ratio difference being much greater in the new EU member states, where the culture dictates that a smaller proportion of the alcohol produced is consumed by women Alcohol has been defined as only one of the causes of premature mortality (see above). Rehm suggests that alcohol is the major factor as, if the alcohol-related mortality is removed and the mortality figures adjusted, then the premature mortality rates between the highest and lowest rated countries become much more similar. Premature alcohol-attributable deaths in eight European countries by sex and age groups as proportions (in %) of all deaths, for the year 2002 New EU member states Old EU member states Age group Czech Republic Hungary Lithuania Poland France Sweden UK Russiab Men 20–44 28.5 39.4 38.4 26.0 22.9 19.2 22.2 30.7 45–64 14.0 22.2 16.4 10.2 16.6 7.1 7.6 11.9 20–64 16.3 25.2 22.8 13.6 18.0 9.3 10.7 17.9 Women 20–44 14.2 19.5 21.4 10.7 10.9 6.9 12.5 19.9 45–64 4.5 12.7 10.1 2.1 9.6 2.2 4.6 4.9 20–64 5.8 13.7 12.4 3.6 9.9 2.9 6.0 8.5 The estimates for Russia are underestimates, as several disease categories could not be included because of the different classification system of diseases (After Rehm J et al. 2007). It has to be acknowledged that with all of the papers cited in this examination, there are a number of potential shortcomings as data from different countries is inevitably subject to different categorisations and different modes of collection. Equally, differential rates of confounding factors such as Hepatitis C, HIV/AIDS, smoking and nutritional differences, all of which impact on the clinical presentation of the alcoholic liver disease process are difficult to completely isolate and account for. An additional complicating factor is that it has long been recognised that small amounts of alcohol have a cardio protective effect (Rehm J et al. 2003 B), irregular heavy drinking occasions (binge drinking) adding up to the same average volume of drinking over a period of time are associated with increased risk of vascular events. This increased risk is hard to separate from the increased risk of mortality from alcoholic liver disease. This is particularly the case with the Russian experience where drinking typically follows irregular heavy drinking patterns and the cardioprotective effect is probably negligible on a population-wide assessment. (Nicholson A et al. 2005) In overview, one can conclude that alcohol plays a substantial, and geographically variable role in premature adult mortality across Europe with 15% of all deaths in the 20 64 yr age range being attributable to this risk with men comprising a higher proportion than women in this total. (Rehm J et al. 2006). References Aricà ², S., Galatola, G., Tabone, M. and Corrao, G. (1994) Amount and duration of alcohol intake in patients with chronic liver disease. An Italian Multicentric Study. Italian Journal of Gastroenterology 26, 59 – 65. Becker U, Deis A, Sorensen T I A, et al. (1996) Prediction of risk of liver disease by alcohol intake, sex and age : a prospective population study. Hepatology 1996; 23 : 1025 1029 Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Costa G, et al. (1997) Drinking habits as cofactors of risk for alcohol induced liver damage. Gut 1997; 41 : 845 850 Brett, B. T., Hayes, P. C. and Jalan, R. (2001) Primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in cirrhosis. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 13, 349 – 358 Burra, P., Mioni, D., Cillo, U. et al. (2000) Long-term medical and psycho-social evaluation of patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease. Transplant International 13, S 174 – S 178 Camps, J., Crisostomo, S., Garcia-Granero, M., Riezu-Boj, J. I., Civeira, M. P. and Prieto, J. (1993) Prediction of the response of chronic hepatitis C to interferon alfa: a statistical analysis of pretreatment variables. Gut 34, 1714 – 1717 CMO (2001) Chief Medical Officer. On the State of the Public Health: Chief Medical Officers Annual Report 2001. Department of Health, HMSO : London; De Bac, C., Stroffolini, T., Gaeta, G. B., Taliani, G. and Giusti, G. (2004) Pathogenetic factors in cirrhosis with and without hepatocellular carcinoma: a multicenter Italian study. Hepatology 20, 1225 – 1230 Harry, R. and Wendon, J. (2002) Management of variceal bleeding. Current Opinions in Critical Care 8, 164 – 170. Loguercio C, Di Pierro M, Di Marino M P, Federico A, Disalvo D,, Cradta E, Tuccillo C, Baldi F, Del Vecchio Blanco C (2000) Drinking habits of subjects with Hepatitis C virus related chronic liver disease : Prevalence and effect on clinical, virological and pathological aspects. Alcohol and Alcoholism Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 296 301, 2000 Jellinek, E. M. (1960a) Alcoholism, a genus and some of its species. Canadian Medical Association Journal 83, 1341–1345 Jellinek, E. M. (1960b) The Disease Concept of Alcoholism, pp. 36 – 41. Hillhouse Press, New Haven, CT. Kwo P Y, Ramchandani V A, OConnor S, et al. (1998) Gender differences in alcohol metabolism: relationship to liver volume and effect of adjusting for body mass. Gastroenterology 1998; 115 : 1552 1557 La Vecchia, C., Levi, F., Lucchini, F. et al. (1994) Worldwide patterns and trends in mortality from liver cirrhosis, 1955 to 1990. Annals of Epidemiology 4, 480 – 486. Leon, D. A. and McCambridge, J. (2006) Liver cirrhosis mortality rates in Britain from 1950 to 2002: an analysis of routine data. Lancet 367, 52 – 56 Lieberman, M. W., Barrios, R. and Carter, B. Z. (1995)Gamma -Glutamyl transpeptidase. What does the organization and expression of a multipromoter gene tell us about its functions? American Journal of Pathology 147, 1175 – 1185. Luca A, Carles Garcia-Pagan J, Bosch J, et al. (2007) Effects of ethanol consumption on hepatic hemodynamics in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2007; 112 : 1284 1289 Nicholson A, Bobak M, Murphy M, Rose R, Marmot M. Alcohol consumption and increased mortality in Russian men and women: a cohort study based on the mortality of relatives. Bulletin of the WHO (2005) 83 : 803 Mabee, C. L., Crippin, J. S. and Lee, W. M. (2008) Review article : interferon and hepatitis C-factors predicting therapeutic outcome. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12, 509 – 518. Mathurin, P., Duchatelle, V., Ramond, M. J. et al. (1996) Survival and prognostic factors in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with prednisolone. Gastroenterology 110, 1847 – 1853 McKee M, Shkolnikov V. (2001) Understanding the toll of premature death among men in eastern europe. Br Med J (2001) 323 : 1051 – 55 Men T, Brennan P, Boffetta P, Zaridze D. (2003) Russian mortality trends for 1991 – 2001 : analysis by cause and region. Br Med J (2003) 327 : 964. OPCS (2004) Office of Population Censuses and Surveys General Household Survey : HMSO London 2004 Ostapowicz, G., Watson, J. R., Locarnini, S. A. and Desmond, P. V. (1998) Role of alcohol in the progression of liver disease caused by hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 27, 1730 – 1735 Pessione, F., Degos, F. and Marcellin, P. (1998) Effect of alcohol consumption on serum hepatitis C virus RNA and histological lesions in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 27, 1717 – 1722 Pol, S., Lamorthe, B. and Trinh Thi, N. (1998) Retrospective analysis of the impact of HIV infection and alcohol use on chronic hepatitis C in a large cohort of drug users. Journal of Hepatology 28, 945 – 950 Rehm J, Room R, Monteiro M, et al